Psychology and education in the twentieth century Essay Example for Free

Psychology and education in the twentieth century Essay The twentieth century was innovative in a multiplicity of fields, including psychology and education. The attempt to develop the understanding on how humans learn was a challenge upheld by a â€Å"huge and diverse cast of characters† (Harrà ©, 2005: p7), with some so prolific that they didn’t only affect the classroom but â€Å"have left an enduring mark on our understanding of ourselves† (Harrà ©, 2005: p7). For this essay, I will describe and reflect on the theories of Burrhus Fredrick Skinner and Jerome Bruner, particularly focusing on Operant Conditioning and Cognitive Learning and apply them to an educational setting. Jerome Bruner (1915-2016) is renowned as one of the most significant and influential cognitive and constructivist theorists of the twentieth century and specifically developed â€Å"the study of the mental processes of thinking† (Harrà ©, 2005: p49). His initial focus was the development of human cognition but psychology at Harvard, according to Bruner had become â€Å"centrifugal† (Bruner,1983: p252). In turn, this led Bruner to begin his exploration into child cognitive development, heightening the importance of categorization in learning as well as â€Å"challenge the old psychology in the latter years of the 20th century† (Harrà ©, 2005: p.60) Bruner was highly influential in educational thinking, especially after the release of his book â€Å"The Process of Education (1960)† that is now recognized as a classic. Himself and other cognitivist theorists such as Piaget were both interested in child development, and Bruner agreed with Piaget that biological organisation underlies cognitive development but queried whether age ranges were correct in his developmental stage theory and believed that â€Å"it paid insufficient attention to the role of social interaction† (Olson, 2005: p.25). Similarly to Bruner, I do not believe that a child’s age always indicates their level of understanding. Limited description is offered of a child’s learning necessities, capability level, or motivational influences; all of which will have an impact on their understanding. I believe that this is a notion that still hasn’t been explored deeply enough and has a negative impact on our education today, as some students are still failing as the curriculum is generalised â€Å"the exam boards adopt common ways of working† (Ofqal,2017). The Eminent Harvard Psychologist has contributed greatly towards psychology overall, but his works have been most recognized in education; he felt that it was substantial for a learner to attain the fundamental values of a subject – his theory generally expressed that learners develop new ideas and concepts based upon existing knowledge; correspondingly to Piaget, he used three phases to develop his theory on modes of representation (how a learner may think of an object). Each mode is foremost at different stages of development, but all are present throughout the process. The first stage (1-18 months), was termed â€Å"inactive†. Thinking is utterly based on the child’s physical actions rather than their internal thinking. This mode is continuously seen in the later years, an example of that would be when a child is learning how to get dressed for school or ride a bike. The second mode begins to develop when a child reaches 18 months and was named â€Å"iconic†, and is mainly obtained via pictures or icons. These are mainly based on the five senses (hear, touch, smell, visualise). In an educational setting, diagrams and/or illustrations are often useful when introducing a new topic. The third stage, mainly reached at the age of 6 is â€Å"symbolic† and is primarily based on the use of symbols. Language also serves the purpose of regulation in this stage; as children develop, they shift from being external to being internal in cognitive processes. Using language as a symbol is essential to develop the capacity to think in abstract terms. Based on this three-stage notion, Bruner recommended using a combination of concrete, pictorial and then symbolic activities which will lead into more effective learning. This remains true even for adult learners. The theory is conceptually useful in teaching, as it allows staff to engage with all learners regardless of their cognitive level. With a range of supplies (study materials, activities, and tools), a new topic can be taught easily as it can begin as a concrete representation, and eventually end as an abstract one. This also provides learners something they can return to if they come across any problems with the matter. A primary example would be to engross the learners to do physically create 3D shapes. The following exercise would be an illustration of a shape, and the names of the shapes would aurally be read out and explained by the tutor. Thirdly, the learners should discuss the concept of the lesson and discuss any findings. Not only is this a far more gradual and realistic way of learning, I believe it also encourages motivation; something Bruner felt strongly about â€Å"The act of grasping the meaning, significance or structure of a problem or a situation without explicit re liance on the analytic apparatus of one\s craft† (Bruner, 1966: p.) For Bruner, the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child’s thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations. Bruner’s notions and concepts have been rejected and critiqued by other theorists. For example, Piaget trusts that patience is necessary to reach the stage where a child is ready, whereas Jerome Bruner believes that the speed of cognitive development process can be increased if necessary. Unlike Piaget who was â€Å"resistant to criticism, sticking to a fixed position in the face of theoretical objections and empirical refutations† (Harrà ©, 2005: p57), Bruner was â€Å"unafraid of words like mind, and expectation, and perception, and meaning† (Miller, 2003: p.142). Bruner places a broader focus on his theory and attempts to be more open-minded and take a variety of studies into account

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There are many different programs, which offer scholarships for studying in different parts of the world. In order to pick the right one for you, one needs to clearly understand what he/she expects from the program. I find UGRAD to be one of most promising programs for studying in the US for me, because it offers everything I’m looking for. Studying in the US has many great advantages like having an opportunity to get higher quality education, learning about the American people, exploring their lifestyle, culture and holidays, improving your English as well as becoming more responsible and mature person than you are currently. Armenian education system is descendent of the former Soviet Union one, so as a consequence it is more concentrating on theory rather than on the practical usage of the information. The problem is that without knowing how to apply the knowledge, one won't be able to become a good specialist. It is like having a tool but not knowing how to use it. Imagine having the latest, most powerful computer without having a power supply. You can’t make any use of it. This is the situation I found myself in - universities here give profound knowledge however, they are far from providing you with skills of using it. Whereas American education system pays more attention to practical skills, which include ability of doing research, actively interacting with problems of real life as well as developing critical thinking skills. Not to mention that due to having much more progressive equipment and better facilities studying is an easier, more attractive and more joyful process for students. Studying in the US is a perfect solution, as I will get best from both of the worlds. Besides academic challenges, ther... ... As soon as we get to know it better, we find it interesting and even like it. This is the kind of experience I’m looking for. Speaking of motivation I must admit that it came from my English teacher, who kindly showed me the right path to a better future. Thanks to her I had a chance to meet teachers from the US, communicate with them, ask many questions. That was the moment when I realized what I was missing. And the reason beyond my desire to get the best possible education is actually the fact I want to make my country a better place to live in. Armenian economic system is having a hard time nowadays, and the reason is the lack of proper specialist, who would lead the country to the right direction. I hope all the skills and knowledge I’ll bring with me from the US in case of being chosen will help me to become one of the leaders my country needs so much.

Review of The Epic of Eden Essay

The Epic of Eden: A Christian Entry into the Old Testament. Sandra L. Richter, Intervarsity press, 2008. ISBN: 978+8308-2577-6 Albert Einstein once said â€Å"Peace cannot be kept by force; it can only be achieved by understanding. † This is an extremely powerful quote, and I will seek to convey its strength, as applied to our lives as Christians, upon the careful review of Sandra L. Richter’s The Epic of Eden: A Christian Entry into the Old Testament. Richter designed this text as merely a tool by which we might further our understanding of the Old Testament narrative. With one minor glitch in her system, Richter handled the task as that of an expert in the field would – with patience, attention to central detail, and arresting dialogue designed to pull the reader in and leave them starving for more. Richter prefaced The Epic of Eden with a mind-boggling introduction that left no doubt in my mind that this was going to be an enlightening read, and I don’t say this casually. The second definition of the word enlighten, according to Merriam- Webster, is â€Å"to give spiritual insight to†, and Richter disguised a promise of nlightenment within the initial pages of this text. As a perfect example of this concealed assurance, Richter states that the end result of a church not knowing their Old Testament history is that â€Å"The church does not know who she is, because she does not know who she was†(17). These words resonate with the threat of a Christian identity crisis, while at the same time, the promise of an assured, powerful, Christian identity. One of the more profound ideas in Richter’s Epic of Eden is her use of an effective metaphor is chapter one. â€Å"†¦ we need to get past the great barrier – that hasm of history, language, and culture that separates us from our heroes in the faith† (21). This comparison seems to collect all of the hesitancies, the reservations, and the relative fear in understanding the Old Testament, and places them in a neat little package aptly titled the great barrier. Richter wasted no time in eliciting the appropriate internal response: there is a barrier to my knowledge of the Old Testament, and I am largely the reason that barrier exists. It became immediately obvious to me that, should I want to remove this barrier and learn more of who I am, nd where I came from, and dare I say, where I’m going, then I will require further reading. That promise of enlightenment, at this point, has become an extremely dominant theme. Richter takes a superb approach to answering the question of â€Å"How? † How will we, as Christians recognizing the need for Old Testament knowledge, come to understand the features of the Old Testament most relevant to who we are, where we have come from, and where we are going? Richter makes reference to the â€Å"dysfunctional closet syndrome† (18), a metaphor she uses to relate he idea that we possess a disorganized, collective array of varying thought and knowledge processes relevant to our Old Testament experience. In order to gain a full, working comprehension of our history, we must organize our ‘closets’, and become familiar with the pieces that are stuffed inside. Richter begins her teaching that we tend to see things through the lens of our own experiences, our own societies, our own cultures. This strengthens the great barrier in that we are not able to appreciate the events of the Old Testament, due in part to the differences between hat we know, and about that which we read. Richter points out that â€Å"†¦ to truly understand their story, we need to step back and allow their voices to be heard in the timbre in which they first spoke. We need to do our best to see their world through their eyes† (22). Richter allows the reader to identify this facet of the great barrier as more than a mere hindrance to understanding. Richter begins her breakdown of the Old Testament by stating the overall theme of the text- redemption. I would be hard pressed to find a more appropriate motivating factor in persuading one to truly nderstand the Old Testament. This is the ultimate goal in the life ofa Christian: to be redeemed by the Father for the wayward life lived as a human, who could never hope to prevail without it. Richter explains that the word redemption was actually adopted from â€Å"†¦ the laws and mores of Israel’s patriarchal, tribal culture† (40). She goes on to reference several popular stories from the Old Testament, in order to allow the reader to fully grasp the concept of redemption as it was applied in Old Testament text. The following are two examples: Ruth and Boaz – â€Å"But in his ntegrity, Boaz chooses to embrace the responsibility of a patriarch and become Ruth’s gdel – her ‘kinsman-redeemer† (42). Lot and Abraham – Lot and his household are invaded by a â€Å"†¦ oalition of Kings from Mesapotamia†¦ † (43), and Abraham, being Lot’s uncle, swoops in to save him (accompanied by hundreds of his family members). â€Å"So Abraham puts own household on the line, his own life on the line, in order to rescue his brother’s son from a strong enemy against whom he had no defense. This is anothe r expression of ‘redemption in Israel’s world† (43). The author uses these to nhance our understanding, on a more personal level, of the word redemption, and later, the impact it would have on the life of a faithful Christian when dealt by the hand of God. Richter begins to â€Å"organize our closets† by explaining the â€Å"†¦ real time and space – real people, real places, real faith† (47). In order to understand our Old Testament story, we must first â€Å"†¦ know something about the time and space our heroes occupied† (47). She does this by identifying the five â€Å"key players† (47): Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and David, and their approximate time within the context of ur history. Richter, I believe, uses these figures as the framework of her explanation because each holds extreme value in the overall story of redemption. There are many stories involving other players in the Old Testament, but these five are the ones that have experiences directly relevant to our redemption. This was a masterfully crafted technique, and one I appreciate for its value in my own Old Testament comprehension. Next, Richter attempts to tackle the â€Å"real space† that these heroes occupied. Before delving into the topic, Richter acknowledges the idea that â€Å". eography is a trauma-inducing topic for some folks† (55). Remember in the first paragraph when I touched on the idea that there was a minor glitch in her system? Her attempt at wading through the waters of the geographical flood that stands ever- present in my mind failed miserably. Geography that we learn about in modern-day American education is one thing, and easy enough. Geography pertaining to the bible was an entirely different monster before reading Richter’s Epic of Eden, and it depictions of the space referenced in the text. But after her initial easy-to- nderstand reference of the pertinent places, the text became Jumbled, and I found myself constantly going back to check the maps, and then losing my train of thought. I continued on this annoying cycle throughout the entire explanation of space. I was ultimately left feeling confused and asking more questions, which resulted in the loss of information that I feel I should have been able to retain. Richter did an excellent job of keeping me entertained enough to forge ahead in my thirst for Old Testament knowledge by explaining in great detail the covenants that were held by the key layers of the Old Testament. To be quite honest, before reading Epic of Eden, I was only fully aware of the covenants between Adam and God, and between Noah and God, and I was only vaguely aware of the covenant between Abraham and God. I was delighted that Richter tackled these stories as someone with a strong passion for spreading the gospel. Because of the time and depth that she put into portraying each covenant, I am left with a broader understanding of each of the covenants, and of how they relate to my story, my redemption. Overall, Epic of Eden delivered on its (albeit hidden) promise of enlightenment. I have come a long way in the time it has taken me to read this book, and this can be attributed to the organized, complete set of facts that Richter pulled from the bible for use in aiding my comprehension, my enlightenment. I can now pick up the Old Testament, open to any page, and with my newfound knowledge, I can understand the story and know that it is also my story. An allusion to Einstein’s quote – I have found understanding, and so it is that I now experience peace.

Psychological Effects on Subprime Mortgage Crisis Essay

The day of owning a home was a wonderful experience that Janet Wilson discovered after closing on her first home. She’s a single mother with two sons and when her loan officer explained that her mortgage loan would be approve and she felt her dream of homeownership will be reality. The closing costs were at a minimum due to the loan officer explained it would be an easy closing with low out of pocket costs. Janet worked for a healthcare organization for several years and was able to save enough money to buy needed furniture for her home. Janet enjoyed her new home and finally felt the independence and accomplishment in her life. At 45 years old, she waited a long time witnessing others in her family and friends reaching that goal of homeownership. Janet desperately wanted to reach that goal as well as experience the feeling of obtaining the American dream. In three years of homeownership she was able to pay her mortgage with no problem and was able to start to re-decorate her home. Her boys loved the neighborhood and had developed close friends their age. Ms.  Wilson forgot all her about her closing until one day she received in the mail a letter from her mortgage company that her interest rate is being increased. Janet saw her new adjusted mortgage payment and she almost fainted with disbelief. She was extremely concern of why she wasn’t informed of this possibility from her loan officer at the initial closing. Janet called the mortgage company and they showed no compassion that made the ordeal even more stressful. Janet did not know what to do and the fear of losing her dream home and not having a roof over her son’s head made the situation completely worse. After a couple of months passed with the increased mortgage payment in effect, Janet was unable to make the mortgage payment so then a barrage of letters was received about a pending planned foreclosure. Janet could not work, sleep, or eat due to the enormous stress about the horrible thought of having no place to live and becoming homeless. The thought of losing her home and turning her life upside down with the automatic backlash on her credit score brought psychological effects to her mentality. She knew it would be harder to get another residence to live with bad credit score and with her limited amount of income. According to Steve Berger’s article; â€Å"Legislators presiding over the subprime crisis hearings should look in the mirror and pose a few hard questions before assigning all blame to â€Å"predatory† lenders and mortgage brokers (Berger, 2007). Ms. Wilson experience was the fundamentals of many other in the mortgage meltdown. With limited regulations in place when Ms. Wilson took out the mortgage loan, the predatory lenders gain an opportunity to make money on the backs of someone else dream. There a great deal of pundits stating that many are to blame and that nearly three out of every four subprime mortgages originated by brokers were either fraudulent or misleading tactics used to trick borrowers and lenders (Bitner, 2008). In the meantime, Janet Wilson is facing foreclosure and in a difficult position to choosing what to do in her stressful crisis. She is torn between trying to save her home with a tight budget or to walk away due to the limited availability – to avoid paying the increased mortgage payment. Janet is listening to every news update on the government attempt to assist homeowners in the mortgage crisis as the investors were assisted. In addition, to the rise of foreclosures across the country similar to the situations like Janet Wilson, the financial industry must and will change in order to bring the United States economy back on track (Lee, 2003). In the meantime, the homeowner is stuck not knowing what tomorrow will bring or if their home will be taken away due to misleading practices.

Media and Adverts Essays

Media and Adverts Essays Media and Adverts Essay Media and Adverts Essay The media uses adverts to make the general public aspire to something. Often adverts make you want something you never thought youd want. The advertisers technique is to make you remember their advert. The method they use is sometimes by creating a shocking advert or by using fantasy. Fantasy is a good way of making people who live reality want a different more exciting and unusual life. The advertisers job is to sell a product. If a person remembers their advert the advertiser has therefore done its job. Most people aspire to not just the product but also the setting the product is in.For example if the advertiser is selling a car and the owners of the car are a family that seem to have the sort of life that any ordinary family would aspire to. Maybe the mother is quite attractive not stunning but attractive which then should attract a middle-aged women with kids that wants to look like this stereotyped family. The public might think that this perfect family have this car and maybe if we have the same car we would be on the first step for being like them, this of course isnt true but the public can be easily tricked. Advertisers use this method very often and in one-way it is quite brain washing.There are two types of adverts, one that is read in a newspaper and one you see on television. They use very similar but also very different techniques. The Seductress is a written advert for a newspaper. It uses very persuasive language that diverts the attention from the practical details. It also features the women as sexual objects. Therefore it is aimed to men not women. When this advert was written it was mainly men that bought cars so advertisers smallest concern was if they offended women, if they increased their profits from the adverts they were satisfied.In the modern society now just as many women buy cars as men. In the television advert Peugeot 306 it is aimed at women just as much as men. Advertisers cant afford to feature women as sexual objects any longer because by offending women their profits will go down. Making an advert that both the male and female would aspire to is a challenging task. Most men like to see themselves as helpful and a good role models for the family. Most women want their husband as a good role model in many ways, even though most of the time this is rare.The Peugeot 306 fulfils the desire for both the male and female. The Peugeot 306 is hinted as a family car therefore the whole family need to be attracted to the car especially the mum and dad as they are buying it. In The Seductress, the car is central to the advert. Everything evolves around the car but in the Peugeot 306 advert the car is incidental meaning that even though the advertisers aim is to get the car acknowledged its clever to have the car as incidental because you only realise later in the advert what is being advertised.In The Seductress everything is about the car but that only becomes obvious as you keep reading. You can easily misunderstand the car as a woman. This advert is comparing the car to women. Women have intelligence, by comparing women to a car is seen as offensive. Its personal inclinations, which does offend women. No woman wants a car to be described as having human feelings, similar to theirs. In the car advert The Seductress there are two men yet the male in the car comments often suggesting that there is a women also, Off we went for a drive the three of us. There is no third person in the car.

Frederick Douglass Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Frederick Douglass - Essay Example ille Convention, Frederick Douglas presented some of his grievances against the government that were based on the political and social status of black Americans in the United States. His main complaint was that even after the abolition of slavery, the prejudice against black Americans was rampant and a norm in American society. He observed that the justice system and the clergy were also turning a blind eye towards the discrimination experienced by black Americans (Douglass, p. 2). In particular, he criticized the Lynch law which made the black American community increasingly vulnerable to hate crimes by prejudiced people (Douglass, p. 3). Douglas also stated his grievance against the prejudices demonstrated towards black people in seeking employment and justice. Another grievance that he held against the government was the disenfranchisement of the black Americans. The civil right of political participation was not being protected. He decried that the American government was not ensuring fair representation and that the electoral process was flawed. By disenfranchising the black population, the government was preventing them to be represented as political leaders in the states where they are in a majority (Douglass, p. 5). He argued for a fairer electoral system where the black population was given an equal right to vote and be elected. He stressed that it was the responsibility of the government to ensure that the law was applied uniformly without regard to the colour of the skin of the citizens. Douglas stated that the government was responsible to ensure that the freedoms and civil rights granted in the American Constitution were not denied to any citizen. In his struggle for racial equality in the United States, Martin Luther King practiced non-violence. He was a believer in dialogue and negotiation to create mutual understanding between the white and black races so that both could enjoy their civil rights equally in society (King, p. 3). Writing from jail

Alcoholic Abuse Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Alcoholic Abuse - Assignment Example to "hold their liquor" better than those without such history. Experts suggest some people may inherit a lack of those warning signals that ordinarily make people stop drinking. Research suggest this factor may contribute between 40 per cent and 60 per cent of alcoholism cases related to genetic factors. (alcoholism). Alcoholism in parents increase the risk for violent behaviour and abuse toward their children. Children of alcoholics tend to do worse academically than others. I will be using the Wisconsin Psychometric test as a measuring tool to test this hypothesis on my targeted sample of Children of alcoholic parents, against children of parents who are not alcoholics. I will be using the statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) for inputting my collected data, which will do the correlations, multicollinearity, and hypothesis. I will assess the incidence of depression, anxiety, stress, self-esteem and criminality, of those who are the off spring of alcoholic parents against those who are not. The kind of clear-cut model of the genetic sources of alcoholism perceived by the public and presented in the public tracts does not accurately reflect the state of knowledge in this area. No persuasive genetic mechanism has been proposed to account for accumulated data about alcoholic behaviour, social differences in alcoholism rates or the unfolding of the disease. Biological findings about the offspring of alcoholics have been inconsistent and grounds exist to challenge the notion of an enhanced genetic liability for alcoholism thathas been accepted wisdom for the last decade. Genuine attempts to forge data and theory into genetic models have been limited to men... Abrams and Niura ed (xx), Closing in on Addiction New Findings suggest a biochemical common ground, Social and Biological Theories in a combined Model, National Clearing House For Alcohol and Drug Information. Retrieved on line on March 4, 2006; from Niolon, Richard, Closing In on Addiction New Findings Suggest a Biochemical Common Ground, National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information Retrieved on line on March 2, 2006 from www.psychpage.com/problems/library/alcohol,html